The Council of Florence - The Fall of Constantinople
History of the Catholic Church

Slowly but surely, the forces of Islam encroached on the Byzantine Empire. Piece by piece, land was given up and the power of the Empire eroded. Finally, in a desperate attempt to stop the encroachment, the Church and the Empire decided they needed help from the West.

The problem was that relations had been strained, to say the least, with the papacy and the West. After the Great Schism, the 4^th Crusades in 1204, through the urging of Venice, sacked the city. They had broken through the great walls and ravaged the city, dragging off many of the treasures and attempted to set up a Latin patriarchate. The city never recovered. In 1274, Michael III turned to the West for aid and signed a tome of union at Lyons. They accepted all the papal demands but it was rejected by the vast majority of the Church. The aid was not enough.

By the beginning of the 15^th century, the Turks were at the very inner borders of the Empire. Many of the Holy Cities had fallen under their control including many of the patriarchates. The Emperor John VIII and the Patriarch looked again to the West for help. In 1438-9, they met in Ferrara (then moved to Florence) in order to secure a union. The papal demands were many and there was little room for compromise. Eventually all the Eastern bishops except one, Mark of Ephesus, signed on. The papal promises of help never materialized and Constantinople fell to the forces of Mohammed II on May 29, 1453. It never emerged again.

The main issues during all of the negotiations revolved around theological, liturgical and hierarchical divergences between the East and the West. At the forefront of these issues was the idea of papal primacy over the Church. The Gregorian reforms in the late 11^th century had established the concept and for any aid to come to Constantinople, there had to be a recognition of papal primacy. Other issues involved the species of the Eucharist (leavened vs. unleavened), the Filioque and purgatory. While many of the issues were not forced, there was a definite pressure brought to bear on the Orthodox participants. The patriarch Joseph died during the course of the council and in the end all of the Latin demands were met. The Orthodox did get to keep their Liturgy according to the formula.

Though the issues were not new (except for the recent Latin innovation on purgatory), they were expressed in very theological language. The issues of primacy, however, was only spoken about during the last few sessions. Throughout the whole council there was definitely seen a differing approach to theological questions with the Latins being more scholastic and the Orthodox being more in line with palamite theology. In the end only one person did not sign, Mark of Ephesus which prompted the Pope to respond “Then we have accomplished nothing.” In the end all the bishops who signed were thrown out or renounced their support for the false union and Orthodoxy stayed true.

The results can be looked at in two manners, theological and political. Theologically, the issues were defined and any attempts at union was thwarted for the time. The later Unions of the 16^th and 17^th century and the creation of the Eastern Rite Churches can be traced to this council. But the political fallout was greater. The aid never came and the forces of Mohammed II soon had Constantinople under siege. On the last day before the fall of the city, the emperor died on the wall and the Patriarch and the Latin Bishop together served the last Liturgy in Hagia Sophia. Constantinople, like many of the other Eastern cities passed under the Turkish yoke. Interestingly with the establishment of the millet system and other changes, the Church did survive and actually gained in influence with the people while maintaining a relationship wit the new Muslim authorities. But there were incredible restrictions placed upon them which slowly eroded it power.

There are many players involved in the events over the centuries. Emperor Michael III with the Council of Lyons. Emperor John V Paleologos who attempted another union with Rome in 1369. Emperor John VIII, Patriarch Joseph II and the metropolitan of Kiev Isidore were instrumental in putting the council together with pope Eugene IV. At the council itself, of course Mark Eugenikos, bishop of Ephesus is the most famous. After the fall of the Empire, the new Patriarch Gennadios Scholarios was vital in putting together the survival of the Church under Mohammed II.

There are a great number of books written on the subject the Council of Florence and the fall of Constantinople as well as the life of the Church under the Turkish yoke. Most of the documents are translated and can be readily found. As far as books, 'The Council of Florence' by Ivan Ostromoff is written from an Orthodox perspective. Other books include 'The Christian East and the Papacy' by Aristeides Papdakis, 'The Byzantine Commonwealth' by Dimitri Obolensky, 'The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire' by J.M. Hussey and 'Constantinople and the West' by Deno Geanakoplos. The famous book by Sir Steven Runciman, 'The Great Church in Captivity', is indispensable in learning about the Orthodox Church under the Turks.

Two of the most important stories to read on the time involve firstly the life of St. Mark of Ephesus. His life as well as the arguments that he presented and the solid and unwavering support for Orthodoxy provides a solid example for all future ecumenical activity as well as outline the Orthodox positions. This came forth with the infamous line, “Better the Turkish turban than the Roman miter.” This can be contrasted with the story of Metropolitan Isidore who acquiesced to Roman demands, became a cardinal and was eventually expelled from Kiev for his pro-Latin sentiments and ended his days in exile in the Vatican. The other is to read the story of the last days of Constantinople. There is a wonderful book called 'The Lives of the Pillars of Orthodoxy' published by the Holy Apostles Convent which tells of all the events, the lives of the people involved as well as a poignant story on the last days of Hagia Sophia. It also outlines all the Latin demands and the Orthodox response to those demands. Be careful of the polemics.