The First Two Ecumenical Councils

Background

The fourth century began with the worst persecutions against the Church and ended with the Church being the recognized religion of the Empire. Internal power struggles finally led to Constantine winning the throne in 312 AD. Before the Battle of Milvian Bridge, he had a vision of the symbol XP (chi rho in Greek the initials of Christ) with the words “In this sign conquer.” He placed the symbols on the shields of his army and they won the battle and he became Emperor.

Constantine was greatly influenced by his mother Helen who was a devout Christian (and found the true Cross in Jerusalem and eventually had many of the great churches built there). Soon he made sweeping reforms including giving the Church all the privileges and advantages of the Empire. He moved the capital from Rome to the ancient city of Byzantium which he renamed Constantinople. He would call the First Ecumenical Council in Nicea in 325 AD (called Ecumenical because it included bishops from the entire empire and was headed by the Emperor) in response to theological issues and to help organize the Church. The later emperor Theodosius would make Christianity the official religion of the Empire in 380 AD. He would call the Second Ecumenical Council in 381 in the city of Constantinople in response to issues not finished at the first.

It was also during this time that great liturgical developments happened. The Liturgy was formed which we use today as well as many of the feast days established including Great Lent, Pascha and Nativity. Monastic life took form under St. Anthony the Great and others and great teachers rose such as Athanasius the Great and the Cappodician Fathers and John Chrysostom. The Sacraments took form which are celebrated in the exact form as found in today’s Church.

The Issues

The issues can be roughly divided into two major categories; theological and church order. Theologically the major challenge came from the priest Arius who taught that Christ was not divine but rather a created creature. God created Christ like everything else and thus He was not part of the Trinity. Thus, Christ did not have a divine nature. This issue would plague the Church for quite some time. Athanasius was able to prove in his classic book On the Incarnation that Christ had to be God because he took his divine nature from God and thus has to be of the same nature. In addition, the biblical references such as John 1 proves that Christ existed before the creation of the world. This would have a major impact on all theological developments that would follow it.

The other issues of Church order started with the Donatist Schism in North Africa. A group refused to recognize a canonically elected bishop on the grounds that he showed weakness at the time of the great persecution. Constantine intervened and confirmed the election. Other issues such as precedence of bishops, requirements for clergy, and dates of feasts were all taken up by the councils.

The Results

The greatest result was the formulation of the Creed as we say today. The first part was written at the 1st Council and completed at the 2nd. It defined who Jesus Christ was, what was his nature, how he came to be and what he set forth in the world. This symbol of faith remains at the center of our faith. The 2nd Council specifically affirmed the divinity of the Holy Spirit.

Great theologians arose during this time who helped explain some difficult theological points of the Trinity, Christ and the Holy Spirit. They also were instrumental in organizing the Church and establishing proper Church order. Much was written which explained exactly what the Church was comprised of and how one participates in her life. Monasticism was established as an accepted way of living a Christian life and great monasteries were established. The liturgical cycle was set forth which would guide the Church through time. Most importantly, the date of Pascha was officially established so that all Christians could celebrate it together.

One of the major defining elements of the two Councils was the increasing need to combat heresy. Heresy comes from the word meaning “to divide” and as such a heretic was someone who specifically had power to divide the Church and lead people away from the truth. There were many heresies that were formulated in the previous centuries all focusing on who the person Jesus Christ was and what was his nature. The Councils were able to define these questions according to biblical sources as well as sources of Church Tradition. Unfortunately, the heresies did not end but would continue in different forms, each one trying to redefine or reinterpret what was already said. It would take the remaining five Councils to finally put to rest the many differing views on the Church and Jesus Christ as her head.

The Main People

There are of course many great people from this period. Athanasius the Great who destroyed the heresy of arianism. The Cappodician fathers of Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus who helped define the Trinity and the Holy Spirit. John Chyrsostom who left us the wonderful sermons and teachings. Cyril of Jerusalem who helped explain the sacraments. Anthony the Great, Macarius of Egypt, Nicholas of Myra, Spyridon, Ambrose of Milan and Jerome were among the great monastics and bishops of the age.

The Sources

There are many source to draw from. A great source for early church history is the Ecclesiastical History by Eusebius. The decisions of the Ecumenical Councils are also available to read in their fullness. A must read is Athanasius’ On the Incarnation as well as The Life of St. Anthony. Basil the Great’ On the Holy Spirit as well as Gregory of Nyssa’ letters and Gregory Nazianus’ Theological Orations. And of course, the many, many writings of John Chrysostom which cover everything from narratives on the Gospels to marriage and family life. There is an incredible richness in writings from this period which cover every aspect of theology and church life that it can be termed “The Golden Age” of theology. There is very few parts of church life that it did not touch.